Main notional parts of speech

Main notional parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. Members of these four classes are often connected derivationally. Functional parts of speech are prepositions, conjunctions, articles, interjections & particles. Their distinctive features are: - very general & weak lexical meaning; - obligatory combinability; - the function of linking & specifying words. For nouns constitute a class of words which takes an intermediary position between notional & functional words: " morphologically.

It makes it easy for words to pass from one class to another. Such words are treated as either lexico-semantic phonemes or as words belonging to one class. 

Conversion.

On the one hand they can substitute nouns & adjectives , on the other hand they can be used as connectives & specifiers. There may be also groups of closed-system items within an open class(notional, functional & auxiliary verbs) A word in English is very often not marked The problem which is closely connected with the selection of parts of speech is the problem of conversion. There are usually the cases of absolute phonetic identity of words belonging to different parts of speech. About 45% of nouns can be converted into verbs & about 50% of verbs - into nouns. There are different viewpoints on conversion : some scholars think that it is a syntactic word-building means, if they say so they do admit that the word parts of speech at the same time. Russian linguist Galperin defines conversion as a non-affix way of forming words. 

A creation of new words with zero-affix linguistics

 There is another theory by French linguist Morshaw who states that conversion is a creation of new words with zero-affix linguistics this problem is called "stone-wall construction problem". Another factor which makes difficult to select parts of speech- in English is abundance of homonyms in English. They are words & forms identical in form, sounding, spelling, but different in meaning. Usually the great number of homonyms in English is explained by monosyllabic structure of words but it's not all the explanation, the words are monosyllabic in English because there are few endings in it, because English is predominantly analytical. We differentiate, between full & uartial homonymity , we usually observe full homonymity within one part of speech & partial within different parts of speech. If we have two homonyms within one part of speech their paradigms should fully coincide. ! Homonyms can be classified into lexical, lexico-grammatical & purely grammatical. We should differentiate between homonymity & polysemantic words. Noun. General Classification. Nouns denote things and other entities presented as substance. The only category of nouns which is generally accepted is the category of number. Many scholars think that the notion of gender is applied to English pronouns but not nouns. Gender distinctions are not marked morphologically. Nouns are related by conversion with verbs (to walk - a walk ).  

Nouns can be premodified by nouns in the possessive case & common case.

If we say "the car's roof we mean individual characteristics, "the car roof - general characteristics. Noun-groups of the type "noun + noun" (car roof, speech sound, etc.) are called stone-wall-constructions. They take an intermediary position between compound nouns & noun phrases. Multicomponental structures are typical of newspaper & scientific style (e.g. ambulance- staff-pay-dispute).

Subclasses

Nouns fall into several subclasses which differ as to their semantic & grammatical properties. Division common proper; common concrete & abstract; countable uncountable; uncountable mass .animate, inanimate; personal non-personal; human non-human.  

Lexiсо-semantic variants of nouns may belong to different subclasses (e.g. paper - a paper ). The class of nouns can be described as a lexico-grammatical field. Nouns denoting things constitute the center or nucleus of the field & nouns denoting processes, qualities, abstract notions are marginal or peripheral elements of the field.  

Morphological Characteristics.

Number is proper to countable nouns only. Usually words that lack a certain category have only one form that of the weak member of the opposition. Non-counts may be singular or plural. So , subclasses of non- count nouns constitute a lexico-grammatical opposition: singular only now vs plural only (cattle). The general meaning revealed through the opposition is number or quantity or "oneness/more than oneness". The general meaning revealed through the lexico-grammatical opposition is "discreteness/non-discreteness".   

The opposition "discreteness/non-discreteness" is semantically broader then the opposition "oneness/more than oneness". It embraces both countable & uncountable nouns. Singular presents the noun- referent as a single indiscrete entity. Plural presents the referent as a multiplicity of discrete entities (houses , cars; scissors; wines). Case is a morphological category which has a distinct syntactic significance as it denotes relations of nouns towards other words in the sentence.  

Languages of synthetic structure have a developed case system. Languages of analytical structure lack these morphological variants. In English the only case which is marked morphologically is the Genitive. The other "case meanings" are expressed by word order & prepositions. Positional & prepositional cases are very often analyzed alongside of the inflectional case. And the case system may look as follows: John came in.(nominative) John's friend or a friend of John (genitive) I gave John a letter, or I gave it to John, (dative) I saw John there, (accusative) It is obvious from these examples that position is a syntactic property. 

Prepositional phrases.

Prepositional phrases can not be treated as analytical case forms as prepositions preserve the lexical meaning. Prepositions may precede the genitive case (at the butcher's), besides analytical forms are opposed to synthetical forms. Prepositional phrases & synthetic forms are not opposed, they are often synonymous (government's decision = the decision of the government). So, there are only two cases but this two-case theory is open to criticism, 's is not a typical case inflexion, it is used' both in the singular & in the plural (man's -men's), it can be added to adverbs (yesterday's meeting), it can be added to phrase {Mary & John's father).

Professor Vorontsova does not recognize case as a morphological category She treats 's as a postposition, a sign of syntactic dependence, as a syntactic form, word resembling a preposition.  

Academician Smimitskiy also expresses doubts for the recognition of the genitive case but most scholars find that peculiarities of's cannot be denied. Attempts have also been made to combine the case system of nouns & pronouns, thus recognizing three cases: nominative, genitive & accusative (John, him). As stated Bloch the categories of the noun-substitute should reflect the categories of the noun & not vice versa.  

A semantico-syntactic approach to case.

Finally there is also a semantico-syntactic approach to case where a case is treated as semantic relationship. Different semantic relations of the noun & the verb are treated as "deep semantic cases" which have different forms of expression in the surface (or syntactic) structure. Thus, sentences: John opened the door with the key The door was opened with the key by John. The key opened the door, express the same semantic relations between doer, instrument, object & action. She is eager to please. She is easy to please. Syntactic structure is the same but meaning is different.  

Possessive case is narrower in meaning than genitive case. In Old English genitive case could be used with living beings but not with inanimate nouns. Today possessive case may express not only the idea of possession but the idea of subject, object, material, measure, part of the : whole. There is a very old theory that's is a kind of abbreviation of pronoun "his". First it was used with masculine gender, then it spread to feminine as well: II. it doesn't blend with the stem of the word III. it expresses only case but not gender In Modern English possessive case has several specific meanings portraitive meaning (A portrait of the king - king's portrait; He is father of the first husband of my wife). Today we use possessive case not only with the names of living beings but with abstract notions expressing distance, months, seasons & such words as town, city, ocean, sea, world.  

Sometimes possessive case is even personified. Gender. Many scholars believe that gender forms are originally sex forms. But today sex as a lexical notion has no proper connection with grammatical notion of gender. Today we have many cases when inanimate things are personified & are treated as belonging to masculine or feminine gender. Masculine sex is connected with strength , violence, brutality; feminine - with love, beauty, tranquility but Englishmen violate the tradition Unwillingly. In Oscar Wilde's "Happy Prince" the swallow is masculine & the reea is feminine. In English we have suffix "ess". & words like waitress, princess, duchess etc. , but we can't consider this suffix to be ; a morphological form of gender because it can't be added to' all the nouns in the language. We have no grammatical category of gender in Modern English - we have only lexical means of expressing it.  

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